GOVERNMENTS across the world are exploring ways to address the growing imbalance in development. The phenomenon is noteworthy in both developed and developing countries, where the levels of development vary significantly from place to place within a country. Thus, some places (such as large cities and adjoining areas) experience progressive growth, while remotely located smaller urban and rural settlements portray a dismal picture, often characterized by poor living conditions, acute poverty, infrastructure and service deficiencies, and outmigration.

Quite often, inequalities among settlements are sought to be overcome by adopting a regional planning and development approach. This is basically spatial development planning oriented to the future for a large area (i.e., a region) to ensure optimal utilization of space and distribution pattern of human activities. The approach provides for controlled location of facilities and activities (markets, infrastructure, industries, transport networks, residential and work places, etc.) in a coordinated manner, to ensure a better utilization of the natural, human and financial resources and a faster development of the regional economy such that the benefits of socio-economic development are equitably distributed among people within the region.

The improvement of transport links between places and the development and modernization of transport infrastructure are important policy recommendations in a regional plan document. The purpose is to facilitate the flow of goods, people and information for the benefit of the population living in the region. By following this approach, people can be brought into functional economic areas that offer enhanced choice in terms of lifestyle, employment and investment opportunities, thereby leading to overall socio-economic progress. Moreover, as argued in this paper, the developed cities/urban places situated within the region benefit by way of reduced traffic congestion, travel time, emissions of carbon dioxide, and so on.

The priority areas considered in a regional planning process vary depending on regional characteristics. This is observed from a review of information on regional development strategies in respect of select world regions. With regard to the transport sector, it is noted that the Sydney-Canberra Corridor Regional Strategy (Australia) recognizes the need to further improve transport connections between the two cities, and to maintain strong internal connections between centres and towns.¹ The Greater Tokyo Area Plan (Japan) lays emphasis on enhanced circular links within the Greater Tokyo Area through development of loop and arterial roads.² The Regional Communications Plan for the Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei cluster (China) supports the implementation of intercity railway based transportation, reconstruction of the national airport, and building of expressways.³ Similarly, the Spatial Development Framework for the Cape Town Metropolitan Area (South Africa) provides for strengthening of metropolitan nodes and activity corridors by developing an integrated transport system.⁴ The four examples cited show what is being done in other parts of the world. Similar regional planning practices are in use in many countries of the world.

Ensuring equity in regional development, however, depends upon a number of factors, such as nature of governance policies and initiatives, regional and urban planning practices, ability of stakeholders at the national and lower levels, development priorities, quantum of funds available, financial allocations, manner in which funds are utilized, and the use of available natural and human resources. Thus, regional (including transport) planning measures implemented in different parts of the world have met with varying levels of success.

 

In densely populated countries with a predominantly rural base such as India, the linkages between settlements are poorly developed. Generally, growth centres (i.e., cities and important towns) are well connected with each other by various transport modes and networks, but their connectivity with the adjoining rural hinterland as well as with small and medium towns remains weak or completely absent.

This problem is marked in the National Capital Region (NCR) of India. The region covers an area of about 33,578 sq kms and comprises the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, located in the centre of the region, as well as some areas falling in the neighbouring states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. The total population of NCR was about 46.04 million in 2011, and is expected to reach 64 million by 2021. At the time of the 2001 Census, there were three metropolitan/million plus cities, 17 class-one cities (population of 100,000+), 91 towns, and 7,528 rural settlements in the NCR. The maximum distance between settlements situated in the region is about 200 to 250 kms.⁵

 

The NCR is a functional region. Given its spatial proximity to Delhi, there is an enormous flow of people, goods, information and investment. Places are interdependent on each other. The region is delineated for promoting balanced and harmonized development. An appraisal of select socio-economic characteristics and development indicators, however, reveals significant regional as well as rural-urban disparities in population distribution and decadal growth rates, literacy rates, wages, employment, living conditions, access to basic infrastructure and services, and so on. Further, due to a high number of daily/permanent migrants and the subsequent increase in population size, Delhi is experiencing a number of problems, such as traffic congestion because of high motor vehicle growth, slow travel speed, road accidents, fuel wastage and the resultant economic loss, environmental pollution, pressure on infrastructure and services, growth of slums and illegal construction, among others.

 

The Regional Development Plan 2021 proposes policy measures for attaining the objectives of economic growth and balanced development, such as creation of employment opportunities, development of transportation networks and other basic infrastructure facilities, environment protection, etc.⁶ Financial assistance to state governments/implementing agencies is provided from a revolving fund.⁷

In order to improve accessibility and movement of goods and passengers within the region, the following objectives have been identified:

* To decongest Delhi roads, rail and rail terminals, by diverting the by-passable traffic from Delhi.

* To construct road and rail linkages along the high density routes in and around Delhi and also in NCR.

* To provide linkages amongst metro/regional urban settlements in the outlying areas of NCR.

* To connect metro/regional centres with the capital city by an efficient and effective transport network for facilitating faster movement of traffic among such centres and Delhi.

* To link the sub-regional centres with effective and efficient transport network for facilitating faster movement of traffic among such centres and higher order settlements.

* To directly link other urban nodes having maximum attracting and generating characteristics.

* To improve connectivity and accessibility in the region through development of peripheral expressways and mass/regional rapid transit systems.

* To permit unrestricted movement of public transport (i.e., buses, taxis and autorickshaws) in NCR; and

* To create a unified Metropolitan Transport Authority for NCR.

 

Delhi occupies a central location in North India. For numerous reasons (including trade and commerce, employment, education, etc.), it has been a destination point for many years, as well as a major intersection for people who live in the nearby and far off Indian states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. The location of Delhi has, therefore, played a key role in the evolution of the regional transport network.

Roads display a radial pattern. The five national highways (no. 1, 2, 8, 10 and 24) branch out in all directions from a common centre, i.e., Delhi. The carriageways vary between two and six lanes. This pattern results in heavy traffic congestion in various parts of Delhi. In the absence of alternative/bypass routes, many vehicles enter/cut across Delhi from different directions/states to reach other destinations. At other places in the region, single/double lane state highways and local roads connect settlements situated in the region.

The road network profile in the NCR is gradually changing. The Regional Transport Plan for 2021, formulated on the basis of studies on traffic and travel characteristics (such as volume of traffic, directional flow, pattern of vehicle movement) and travel and transport demand projections, provides for the implementation of the following projects, some of which are already underway.

* Upgradation/widening of national/state highways and construction of new roads: development of a hierarchical network of primary, secondary and tertiary roads. Major towns around Delhi will be connected with each other by an expressway. Primary roads will connect regional towns with Delhi. Secondary roads will connect small towns to larger towns and primary roads. Tertiary roads will connect rural/remote areas to sub-regional towns and secondary roads.

* Conversion of Delhi-Gurgaon-Jaipur national highway to eight lane toll expressway on build-own-transfer (BOT) basis (work completed); and

* Construction of orbital and other expressways on BOT basis that would take traffic around Delhi rather than through it (work in progress).

 

Like with roads, the rail network in the region is also radial, comprising mostly broad gauge (5’6") lines converging on Delhi. At some places in Delhi, Goods Avoiding Lines (GAL) and Delhi Avoiding Lines (DAL) exist for bypassing congested railway stations and for providing a direct passage to other routes. In addition to long distance trains connecting Delhi with other major metropolitan cities of India, several suburban/regional shuttle trains (locally known as EMU/DMU trains) also connect Delhi with many NCR towns. These trains move on the same rail network and are used daily by persons coming to Delhi for work.

For the development of a rail network in the region, the Regional Transport Plan for 2021 provides for the following: regional rapid transit system to connect regional towns with each other, and with Delhi; rail network to be extended to sub-regional centres; orbital rail corridor (parallel to the proposed peripheral road expressway) to connect radial rail corridor of Indian Railways at important towns in the region to bypass the regional rail traffic around Delhi; mass rapid transit system for Delhi and important regional towns; and regional rapid transit system and mass rapid transit system to have feeder rail/road services.

 

The proposed rail network plan is under implementation. Projects involving laying down of lines for connecting important settlements, electrification and construction of freight terminal are in progress. A project that has shown good results is the Mass Rapid Transit System (MRTS) – a non-polluting and efficient rail-based transport system. The network was made operational in phases beginning December 2002 and has been steadily expanding within the city of Delhi. With a total length of about 190 kms, the metro services have also reached three adjacent urban centres outside the Delhi territory, namely Noida and Ghaziabad (in Uttar Pradesh) and Gurgaon (in Haryana). One more centre, namely Faridabad (in Haryana) is expected to be connected by the year 2013. The project costs are shared between the Government of India, Delhi government, Delhi Metro Rail Corporation, Japan International Cooperation Agency, and the participating state government.

The National Capital Region of India faces a number of transport-related problems. These are separately described below for the road and rail sector. Most villages situated in the region are connected to state highways by roads. However, the roads are of inferior quality, broken, dusty and single lanes without dividers. Their condition deteriorates during the rainy season, further reducing travel speed. The mode of transport used by the rural population is mainly non-motorized, such as the bullock cart and bicycle. Some affluent rural people also use tractors, cars, jeeps and two-wheelers.

The urban centres display better road connectivity. However, most state/national highways are single lane and without dividers. There is considerable movement of vehicles on the highways and accidents are common. Some highways pass through small settlements because of the absence of bypass roads, and this leads to traffic congestion for hours. An absence of rail overbridges implies that vehicles have to halt for several hours until the trains pass.

 

The volume of traffic is enormous, especially on major (radial) corridors (i.e., national highways) leading to Delhi from all directions. Due to high traffic volume, its management becomes difficult for the local regulatory authorities once the vehicles reach Delhi. The problem is aggravated by poor road infrastructure, especially non-functional traffic signals at a large number of intersections, lack of advanced information systems and neglect by the authorities in efficient traffic monitoring. Such conditions create congestion resulting in loss of time and resources.

Some national highways have been upgraded to expressways, such as the Delhi-Gurgaon and Delhi-Noida expressways. The toll collection points on the highway experience frequent traffic jams during peak hours. This is due to rapid increase in the volume of traffic and non-adherence of rules by the users. Those paying by cash frequently enter the lanes designated for tag users. The problems also occur due to lack of traffic segregation based on speed and size of the vehicle, poor enforcement of rules and penalty, insufficient use of available technology, and shortage of staff to monitor traffic as it approaches the toll collection point.

In the implementation of regional road projects, such as the expansion of national highway no. 8, acquisition of land has been a major issue. The land acquisition procedures and the process of transferring it to the development agencies are cumbersome. Land is often owned by private individuals/rural population and they are often not satisfied with the compensation offered. There have often been cases of violence and conflict and many disputes are now before the judiciary.

The implementation of the Eastern and Western Peripheral Expressway (an orbital road corridor being developed around Delhi), has resulted in a number of problems, such as payment issues between concessionaire and labour contractor, late approval of designs of railway overbridges and grade separators, land acquisition, involvement of several project clearing agencies, pending litigation, etc. The decision to impose tolls has also caused a delay in the timely completion of the project. While the Planning Commission is in favour of imposing a nominal toll, the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways is of the view that if toll is collected, people will not use such roads and the issue of traffic diversion will not be addressed.

 

An independent project, namely the Yamuna Expressway Project, conceived to reduce travel time between Delhi and Agra and to open up avenues for industrial and urban development in the region, is also beset with obstacles. The farmers have been agitating against the acquisition of their lands since January 2011, often resulting in clashes with the police. Some are demanding a higher compensation for sale of their lands, alleging that government buys at a low price and makes profit by selling to private developers at high prices. Analysts point out that the basic problem lies in the provisions of the Land Acquisition Act which does not provide for a clear-cut method of fair valuation of land as per prevailing market rates. A related problem is the weak follow-up on relocation and rehabilitation measures for the displaced land owners.

The alignment of length corridors is mostly done through actual ground reconnaissance and surveys, instead of using satellite images and digital terrain models. In some instances, lands owned by farmers are acquired by altering the road alignment to protect properties of the rich and influential people, an example of a deliberate deviation from the actual transport network plan. The use of advanced technology would bring about greater transparency and could help in dealing with the problem of favouritism and corruption.

Buses are used by a large number of common people to travel between places in the National Capital Region. However, due to poor maintenance and outdated models, breakdowns are common, resulting in considerable wastage of time.

 

The existing broad gauge rail lines are laid out in a radial manner, with Delhi at the centre. Suburban and long distance trains bring people from neighbouring regions to Delhi every day for work. The moving speed of most trains is slow, varying between 26 and 56 kms per hour. Trains often come to a halt several times on a particular route because the tracks are occupied by other trains that are slow moving on the same route.

Many of the suburban trains are extremely overcrowded with a large number of people sitting on the rooftop. This is due to an insufficient number of trains on congested routes. Further, some routes are not electrified and there is enormous environmental and noise pollution.

Rapid rail services are not available to the regional population. The Delhi Metro, a modern rapid rail service, is a recent entry that connects only three adjoining towns of Noida, Gurgaon and Ghaziabad, and its expansion in the region is occurring at a slow pace.

The daily movement of people within a region is a normal activity all over the world. People are engaged in various professions for which they travel from one place to another within the rural/urban settlement limits or to an adjoining region. Besides work, there are numerous other reasons for which people travel every day. Thus, availability of a good road and rail (transport) network, along with efficient public transport facilities and services, is a basic requirement of the local population that would allow them to pursue various activities in an efficient and well organized manner.

 

The study of transport networks in the National Capital Region of India presented in this paper shows that a substantial amount of work remains to be done for improving mobility in the region. While there exists a good network of roads, the quality of roads, road infrastructure and services, and public transport vehicles is well below par. Similarly, suburban rail services are of poor quality, and rapid rail service is not available to a large proportion of the population living in the region. Some rail and road projects implemented in the recent past, such as the Delhi Metro, Delhi-Gurgaon and Delhi-Noida Expressways, are important initiatives for meeting the mobility needs of the regional population.

Steps have also been taken by the Haryana government to set up a Mass Rapid Transport Corporation for providing a wide range of transport services in the coming years. However, the implementation of many other regional level transport projects, such as the upgradation of existing roads, construction of new roads, orbital expressways and rail corridors, and introduction of efficient public transport vehicles is progressing at a very slow pace due to a number of problems faced in project implementation.

 

The availability of efficient and economical transport networks and services at a regional level has a direct relationship with the development of places, rural and urban. The examples of regional transport network initiatives in Australia, Japan, China and South Africa described earlier in the paper, demonstrate the fact that such measures have the ability to:

* address problems of congestion experienced in large urban centres/ cities by way of diverting traffic around cities, through the development of orbital networks;

* provide greater access to the young population, living away from cities in the rural hinterland, to numerous opportunities available in large towns and cities;

* improve living conditions and quality of life in underdeveloped areas. Many workers may like to work near their place of residence, instead of large towns/cities. Using fast public transport services, they can easily collect their day to day requirements from the cities on a frequent/daily basis and offer various services to the local/ rural population; and

* attend to the problem of permanent migration to cities. If fast and economical transport services are available to the regional population, workers need not stay in large towns/cities, and can commute every day. This has major social and economic implications, since living costs are high in large towns/ cities as compared to the adjoining hinterland. Thus, migrants who are mainly engaged in informal sector activity end up living in inhabitable areas/slums.

The study argues that implementation of transport projects in the National Capital Region of India should be undertaken on a priority basis. Policy makers, transport planners and implementing agencies face difficulties in the areas of arranging funds, their efficient utilization, corruption, availability of environment friendly technologies, capability of implementing agencies, timely project implementation, land acquisition, interstate coordination, and agreement between government and private developers. An early resolution of regional transportation issues is necessary for the social and economic development of the region.

 

To conclude, developing countries such as India continue to exhibit severe rural-urban and socio-economic disparities. The NCR case study of transportation presented in this paper helps us to understand the nature of the problem and concerns among the public regarding their mobility needs. A similar situation exists in various other sectors – water, sanitation, health, education, employment. In the case of large city regions and urban agglomerations experiencing phenomenal population growth, the problems have aggravated due to a failure in managing urban growth and planning for urbanization.

It is an established fact that inequalities in development have occurred due to the presence of weak or ineffective systems of governance. Without reforming these it will be difficult to accomplish the fundamental goals of sustainability and equity, towards which all countries in the world are working. We need to strengthen existing governance mechanisms, experiment with innovative practices, and adopt principles of good governance.

 

Footnotes:

1. New South Wales Government, Sydney-Canberra Corridor Regional Strategy for 2006-31, Department of Planning, 2008.

2. Tokyo Metropolitan Government, Tokyo’s Big Change: The 10 year Plan for 2006-16, 2006.

3. Eleventh Five Year Programme for 2006-10, Part Three (4), Section X – Regional Cooperation and Opening Up. Available from: eBeijing, the official website of the Beijing government.

4. Cape Metropolitan Council, Metropolitan Spatial Development Framework (MSDF) Redraft 2001 for Spatial Planning and Development of Cape Town Metropolitan Area, 2001.

5. Census of India, Migration Tables – D1, D2 and D3, Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, New Delhi, 2001.

6. National Capital Region Planning Board, Regional Plan – 2021, Government of India, New Delhi, 2005.

7. Funding sources are: Ministry of Urban Development; Government of National Capital Territory of Delhi; repayment of earlier loans; interest income on loans and other internal accruals; market borrowings; loan from multilateral/bilateral agencies such as ADB, DFID, KfW (a German government-owned development bank), UNDP, USAID, World Bank.